I.) Science as “Problem-Solving”
Problem-Solving has been part of man’s history. It is not only applicable in Mathematics but also applicable in all bodies of knowledge. It is through it that progress happens. All progress man can see around him are products of problems that had been solved. In order to solve those problems, one needs to spend his/her time in running many tests (trial-and-error), be observant to every details, be patient and the most important thing to do is to learn from mistakes.
If there is a problem, there is/are answer/s being sought. The answer/s is/are what is missing and the one to be found out. In reaching the answer/s, the problem is solved. The answer/s to the problem is/are never perfect. Time will come that a problem will arise to the answer/s used to solve the old problem. Through it, continual progress happens.
Sciences are all about problem-solving. Life too is about problem-solving. Problems in one’s life are important because it is a means of progress. The progress here refers to what one can learn from the experiences he/she had with the problem, with the process of solving the problem and the answer which is the very aim to solve the problem and the very key for progress. Problems are important. One’s aim in problem-solving is of course to find solutions to solve the problem, to find the answer. In solving the problem, progress happens. If the problem is not solved, the data used in finding the solutions to solve the problem can still contribute to those who will and want to solve the problem.
A.) Trial and Error
Trial and Error has been a method used to solve any problems in Math, Science, all other bodies of knowledge and in life. According to Karl Popper,“the natural as well as the social sciences always start from problems, from the fact that something inspires amazement in us, as the Greek philosopher used to say. To solve these problems, the sciences use fundamentally the method that common sense employs, the method of trial and error. To be more precise, it is the method of trying out solutions to our problem and then discarding the false ones as erroneous. This method assumes that we work with a large number of experimental solutions. One solution after another is put to the test and eliminated.”[1] What’s good with trial and error is that one does not settle to one solution alone. He/she must be open to the solutions he/she thinks that can solve the problem. This method is really testing one’s patience but it creates a mentality to be open for mistakes and failures and learn to stand again through finding alternative solutions and learning from past mistakes.
1.) Three-Stage Model
Karl Popper, one of the philosophers of science, introduced a three-stage model of trial and error. His three stages are the problem; attempted solutions; and the elimination.[2] According to Karl Popper, “The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation. Attempted solutions then follow. These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures. In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[3] This three-stage model of trial and error can help one lead his/her self to solve the problem. This can also help one understand the process that happens before one can gets the answer to the given problem. In order one can achieve what is asked which is the answer, one must pass this method.
a.) Problem- The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation.[4] The problem arises when some kind of disturbance takes place---a disturbance either of innate expectations or of expectations that have been discovered or learnt through trial and error.[5] This then leads to testing movements, to attempts to replace the wrong expectation with new one.[6] Problem has been so essential in man’s life. Life is full of problems. Facing so many problems is natural in life. These problems are meant to be solved and not be taken for granted.
b.) Attempted Solutions- Attempted solutions attempt to solve the problem.[7] These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures.[8] The attempted solutions are not final solutions. Some of them may answer the problem while some cannot. Putting a theory as an attempted solution means it can stand up to rigorous tests. [9] These theories are subjects for elimination.
c.) Elimination- Elimination refers to the elimination of unsuccessful solutions.[10] According to Karl Popper, “In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[11] Those who are eliminated cannot solve the problem. Some of them can solve the problem but there are those solutions that are better. Those theories that remain have the capacity to solve the problem.
B.) Learning through “Error-Correction”
If life is full of problems to be solved, life too is full of learning. Learning basically happens through passively learn from someone (parents, teachers, tutors, friends) or something (books, other reading materials). In other words, it is passive learning. Aside from passive learning, learning can also happenthrough ones experiences. One’s experiences include the experiencesof mistakes, errors and failures. In line with the three-stage model of trial-and error, one must learn from his/her experiences of mistakes and failures for progress to happen. Error correction is the most important method in technology and in learning in general. In biological evolution, it appears to be the only means of progress. One rightly speaks of the trial-and-error method, but this understates the importance of mistakes orerrors-of the erroneous trial.[12] Mistakes are important in learning. It speaks of the defects made by the one who suggests the theories and solutions. If one is aware of it, he/she can avoid doing the same mistakes again for the next time. The lesser the mistakes made the next time one presents his/her theory, means he/she really has learned.
II.) Falsification as “Proof with Disproof”
Falsification is the process of replacing the old/earlier theories by the new/later theories. These new theories can solve the problems that had been solved by the old theories and can also solve the new problems that arise in the old theory. New theories are more advanced than the old ones. Because of falsification, Science, technology and other bodies of knowledge are on their way to advancement. According to Karl Popper, “what distinguishes the scientific approach and method from the prescientific approach is the method of attempted falsification. Every attempted solution, every theory, is tested as rigorously as it is possible for us to test it. But a rigorous examination is always an attempt to discover the weaknesses in what is being examined. The testing of theories is also an attempt to detect their weakness. The testing of theory is thus an attempt to refute or to falsify the theory.”[13]
Theories have their strengths but they also have weaknesses. That is why falsification will always be possible due to the presence of the weaknesses of theories. Because theories have weaknesses, they can still be replaced by other theories. Theories are made just to solve the present problem/s of the old theories but it is really good if the theories could stand for a longer time. The longer the time a theory stands, the more credible that theory is. Theories are also made due to the needs of the people. For example, one will create a software that nobody had ever made due to the need of people. Since it is the first timeof the existence of the particular software, the software may serve its purpose in the present. When the time comes that other peoples’ needs will be greater than the present, there will be anyone who will create the same software but is more advanced than the software in the present.
Scientific discovery is thus a process of building and falsifying theories through a process of trial and error. The result was a genuinely new approach to the philosophy of science which had implications for the pursuit of knowledge outside of the scientific community, and which had the potential to empowerphilosophers and social scientists (as well as scientists) to engagewith fundamental problems by employing the same approach.The point was not to determine what was scientific and what wasnot in order to renounce the latter; rather, it was to provide abroad theory of epistemology, within which it was possible todetermine what appropriately belonged to the realm of scienceand what did not.[14]
Falsification is “proof with disproof.” The proof here refers to the old theory that solved the old problems. If new problems will arise in the old theory, it is subject for falsification. The disproof here refers to the new theory that can solve the new problems that arouse in the old theory. Scientists prefer to test own theories and falsify them, rather than leave them to critics.[15] Science, then, does not begin in observation, but in the positingof theories about problems.[16] For science may be said always to start from the collapse of a theory. This collapse, this elimination, leads to the problem of replacing the eliminated theory with a better theory.[17]
A.) Refutability in Theory
Theories are principles that explainany phenomena. They contain truth in them but they are not absolute truth. Because they are not absolutely true, they have loopholes. Because theories have loopholes, they can collapse. If a theory is refutable, then it is really a theory. If a theory is not refutable, then it is not really a theory. Sciences improve because of the refutability of theories. Because of its being refutable, advancement and progress happens. What the sciences reach in the present are the products of the problems that had been solved in the past and the theories that had been replaced by the better ones. The present science is the product of the theories refuted in the past.
All theories have their weaknesses. They have problems that cannot be solved. The problems cannot be solved by the earlier ones can be solve by the new ones. All theories need other theories. The purpose of other theories is to solve the unsolved in any other theories. The being refutable of theories is the nature of theories.
B.) Refutability means Progress
Theories do not contain absolute truth. In other words, they have downfalls. They have problems that cannot be solved. The purpose of other theories is to solve them. If the problems that arise in a theory are solved, then there is progress.
Refutability of theories means progress. The being refutable of theories permits progress. If something is refutable, then it can be improved. Earlier theories are refutable and are replaced by the new theories. This new theories are also refutable. This refutability of theories makes sciences jump and jump, improve and improve. The older the earth becomes, the greater the improvements happen to man.
C.) Four-Stage Model of Trial and Error
Falsification is not possible using the three-stage model of trial and error alone. It can only happen through the four-stage model of trial and error of Karl Popper. The four-stage model of trial-and-error are the old problem, the formulation of tentative theories; attempts to elimination; and the new problem. [18] It is the cycle of the three-stage model. The falsification happens with the cycle of trial and error especially when the new problem is solved.
1.) Old Problem
The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation.[19] The problem arises when some kind of disturbance takes place---a disturbance either of innate expectations or of expectations that have been discovered or learnt through trial and error.[20] This then leads to testing movements, to attempts to replace the wrong expectation with new one.[21] Old problem/s makes science possible. Science started with a very first problem to be solved and it is the old problem. The old problem is the starting point of science.
2.) Formation of Tentative Theories
Formation of tentative theories attempt to solve the problem.[22] These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures.[23] They are theories that are not final. The tentative answers provided by the theories are in fact attempted explanations.[24] The more the theories are formed, the bigger the possibility that some of them can solve the problem. According to Popper, “every attempted solution, every theory, is tested as rigorously as it is possible for us to test it but a rigorous examination is always an attempt to discover the weaknesses in what is being examined. Our testing of theories is also an attempt to detect their weakness. The testing of theory is thus an attempt to refute or to falsify the theory.”[25] Tentative theories are “not final” theories that attempt to solve the problem and are subject for the elimination of unsuccessful solutions and theories.
3.) Attempts at Elimination
Elimination refers to the elimination of unsuccessful solutions.[26] According to Karl Popper, “In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[27] This is the stage of critical discussion and examination.[28] Again according to Popper, “They are intellectually interesting because they allow us, in practice and the real world, to check the validity of our theories or attempted explanations.”[29] Through the elimination of unsuccessful solutions, the “not so important” solutions are eliminated and replaced by the more important ones. The eliminated solutions are important because of the experience and learning it gives which can help solve the old problem.
4.) New Problems
New Problems are the problems that arise in the theory itself. It is the downfall or loophole of the theory. Prescientific and scientific problems are initially practical in nature, but in the four-stage cycle they are soon at least partially replaced by theoretical problems. This means that most new problems arise out of the criticisms of theories: they are internal to theory.[30] This new problem makes falsification possible. Because of the new problems that exist in the old theory, it is subject for falsification. New problems make science improve. Because of the new problems, it calls for progress through solving the new problem. In solving the new problem, progress happens and science becomes “unstable.”
III.) The Goal of Science
Science had given and continues to give big contributionsin man’s life and in the world. Everything man can see around are products of science. It has been part of man’s life going back to the nomad ages or even before it until now in the present. It is the
key for the betterment of this world. Going back to the past, the world was purely agricultural while now, it is a combination of agricultural, industrial, technological and virtual. The world is partly agricultural with all the advancements in the present world because most of man’s needs for survival such as food are taken from it. All of the improvements in this world became possible because of science. Science grew and continues to grow because of the trial-and-error method in solving the problems and also through the process of falsification. What then is the goal of Science? Can it be achieved or not?
The goal of science is to improve the world where man lives. The improvement happens because of the cycle of the trial-and-errorwhichis called falsification. It makes science always in a “running mode.” Because of this, science will improve and improve the world. There is no rest for science as long as there are problems unsolved and as long as man exists to solve the problem.For sure, there will always be problems and it will never end. The world will always be on its way for a better, improved and progressive world. The nature of science is to “upgrade the world.” All these are possible with falsification. The more the science improves, the more the world becomes better, and the more the information man can access from the world.
A.) No Point to Reach the End
The goal of science is to improve the world through the cycle of trial-and-error which is the falsification. It is the key for the betterment of the world. According to Karl Popper, “Science as it appears in the logical sketch is a phenomenon to be understood as perceptually growing; it is essentially dynamic, never something finished; there is no point at which it reaches its goal once and for all.”[31] This time, the argument is that science has no point to reach its goal. The goal this time refers not to “improvement” but to the “end.” Popper did not mean that science will not improve. What he meant was there is no point for science to “end.” In other words, science will never stop. It will not stop because of the unsolved problems and defects of theories and the nature of science as imperfect striving to be “near-to-perfect.” Science will improve and improve as long as man lives.
1.) Defects as Call for Progress
Problems are important in science. Without them, there is no science. Science starts with problems. Through the existence of problems, there is “something to be sought.”That“something to be sought” is “the answer” to solve the problem. Because it is something to be sought, one must use the process of “trial-and-error” and run extensive tests. If the answer is sought, the problem is solved but the question then is “how long will it stand?” Theories have defects and are refutable. The theories that can solve the old problem fall down because of some defects. These defects call for progress through another theory/ies that is/are better than the present theory. They can be solved through repeating the process of problem-solving through “trial-and-error” again and again with the help of learning from the past mistakes. It is how falsification happens.What is Science without problems and defects? Science starts with problems and progress starts with the defects of theories.
2.) Science as Imperfect to “Near-to-Perfect”
Science and other fields of knowledge always start with problems. If they are solved, new problems (from the solution to solve the old problem) arise to be solved. Problems are forever present in science. Problems are always part of science because science starts with problems and progress starts with the new problems or defects. Science and other fields of knowledge have problems because of their nature as “imperfect.” Science is imperfect as it would start with imperfection and improve because of imperfection. It strives for perfection but it can never be perfect. It is only “near-to-perfect.” There is no perfection in science because there will always be problems existing. It starts with problems. If they are solved, new problems arise. Without problems, science will stop and there will be no need for progress. That is why, science will forever be imperfect because it is its nature. There is no point for science wherein it will be perfect and no defects. Science in nature is dynamic. If time will come it reach perfection, it is no longer a science for it becomes static. Progress in science happens because of the imperfections.
IV.) The Dialectics of Science
The Dialectics in the past, going back in the times of the ancient philosophers, is an argumentative exchange involving contradiction, or a technique or method connected with such exchanges. The word’s origin is the Greek dialegein which means “to argue” or “converse.” In Aristotle, this often has the sense “argue for a conclusion”, “establish by argument.” By Plato’s time, if not earlier, it had acquired a technical sense: a form of argumentation through question and answer.[32]
If the dialectics in the past refers only to the exchanges of arguments and ideas, the dialectics in which the researcher referred to is the tension between opposing theories and ideas in science, in which, these opposing theories, the thesis and anti-thesis, when combined, results to the synthesis of theories. This dialectics is called the Dialectics of Science. Other styles of dialectics were applied by some philosophers in their philosophy such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Hegel. Marx’s dialectics was the Material Dialectics while Hegel’s dialectics was the Historical Dialectics.
The Dialectics of Science refer to the tension between conflicting theories in science. The science that is meant by the researcher is not the Science that studies the physical world rather; it is the science in general, an organized body of knowledge in a particular subject (e.g. Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology, Biology, Chemistry, Philosophy, Theology, etc.). It covers all bodies of knowledge. If Marx’s dialectics was the Dialectics of Work and Hegel’s dialectics was the Dialectics of the History, the Dialectics of Science is the newly discovered dialectics by the researcher. It was an existing phenomenon in all bodies of knowledge going back in the past up to the present.
A.) The Stages of the Dialectics of Science
In any dialectics, there is a concept called the geist. Geist refers to spirit, movement, trend or atmosphere. The spirit here is not the spirit that is understood as the spirit of a person rather, it refers to the movement or the flow of the subject of dialectics. Like any other dialectics, the Dialectics of Science has a progressing geist. The pattern is thesis, contradicted by the anti-thesis and when both combined results to synthesis. It is an unending cycle. With this spirit, science will improve and improve.
1.) Thesis- The Thesis, as the first stage of dialectics, refers to any theory proposed to solve a problem. All theories can be called thesis because they can propose something that can solve the problem existing. It starts the cycle of the dialectics. Thesis is only possible if before its existence, there are problems to be solved.
2.) Anti-Thesis- The Anti-Thesis, as the second stage of dialectics, refers to any theory proposed to solve the problems that other theories (earlier its existence) cannot solve. It is the nature of the Anti-Thesis to contradict to the Thesis. Through the presence of the anti-thesis, progress in science is made possible.
3.) Synthesis- The Synthesis, as the third stage of dialectics, refers to the combination of the thesis and the anti-thesis. Both the thesis and anti-thesis contains truth. The truth they have are merged to one. The truth contained by the synthesis is stronger than that of the thesis and the anti-thesis.
B.) The Unending Cycle of Dialectics
The game of science is unending. First of all, its being infinite (game) is due to the unending existence of problems and defects in theories. Aside from the fact that theories have strengths, they also have weaknesses. These weaknesses call for progress. That is why, science has no end. It will always seek for progress due to the unending presence of problems. Because of problems and weaknesses present to theories, replacements of the earlier theories by the later ones happen. This process of replacement of theories by the better ones is called falsification. Before falsification happens, progress can only happen if one learns from his/her mistakes (Error-Correction). By learning from mistakes, falsification happens.
Because the game of science is unending, the cycle of dialectics is also unending. There will always be thesis in science, where theories propose solutions to solve the existing problems. To oppose to the thesis, there will always be anti-thesis. Theories as anti-thesis are always possible because of the unending presence of defects in theories. Because all theories contain truth, the truth contained by theories can be merged which results to synthesis. Synthesis is the combination of the thesis and the anti-thesis. It contains a stronger truth. After the synthesis, it will be opposed again by the anti-thesis. This cycle makes the science to appear as unending. The Dialectics of Science shows the infinite game of science towards improvement through the process called falsification.
Science is unending. It has no point to end. All bodies of knowledge always have the room for improvement. As time continues to flow, the world will continue to improve and improve. Life is like a Mathematics subject. It is full of problems to be solved. One is free to use different solutions and go in different ways for improvement to happen.
Conclusion: Science as “Never Final”
Science is “problem-solving.” It is through it that progress happens. All progress man can see around them are products of problems that had been solved. It always starts with problems.[33] These problems are asking for answers. In searching for the answers to solve the problem, one must use the process of “trial-and-error.” “Trial-and-Error” has been a method used to solve any problems in Math, Science, all other bodies of knowledge and in life.[34]
Karl Popper, one of the philosophers of science, introduced a three-stage model of trial and error. His three stages are the problem; attempted solutions; and the elimination.[35] According to him, “The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation. Attempted solutions then follow. These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures. In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[36]
Aside from “trial-and-error” method in solving the problems, science improves through “learning from mistakes.” One must learn from mistakes for progress and improvement to happen. Learning and correcting mistakes is the most important method in technology and in learning in general. In biological evolution, it appears to be the only means of progress.[37] Learning from mistakes and correcting them “upgrades” science. In correcting the mistakes, falsification happens. Falsification is the process of replacing the old/earlier theories by the new/later theories. This new theories can solve the problems that had been solved by the old theories and can also solve the new problems that arise in the old theory. New theories are more advanced than the old ones. Because of falsification, Science, technology and other bodies of knowledge are on their way for advancement.[38] Falsification begins with the collapse of theories through the defects found in them. This collapse, this elimination, leads to the problem of replacing the eliminated theory with a better theory.[39]
Because the game of science is unending, the cycle of dialectics is also unending. There will always be thesis in science, where theories propose solutions to solve the existing problems. To oppose to the thesis, there will always be anti-thesis. Theories as anti-thesis are always possible because of the unending presence of defects in theories. Because all theories contain truth, the truth contained by theories can be merged which results to synthesis. Synthesis is the combination of the thesis and the anti-thesis. It contains a stronger truth. After the synthesis, it will be opposed again by the anti-thesis. This cycle makes the science to appear as unending. The Dialectics of Science shows the infinite game of science towards improvement through the process called falsification.[40]
The goal of science is to improve the world where man lives. The improvement happens because of the cycle of the trial-and-error which is called falsification. It makes science always in a “running mode.” Because of this, science will improve and improve the world. There is no rest for science as long as there are problems unsolved and as long as man exists to solve the problem.[41] It has no point to reach the end. According to Karl Popper, “Science as it appears in the logical sketch is a phenomenon to be understood as perceptually growing; it is essentially dynamic, never something finished; there is no point at which it reaches its goal once and for all.”[42] Science is dynamic. It is always on its way to progress. Progress is possible because problems and defects that make the theories collapse. The collapse of theory is calling one’s attention to find solutions to solve it. Problems and defects are and will always be part of science. It is where science starts and it is where improvements and progress happens.
Science is “never final.” It has no point to stop and become stable. It will never end. The nature of science is that it is imperfect because it is full of problems and defects. Problems and defects will never stop. Theories have defects and are refutable. The theories that can solve the old problem fall down because of some defects. These defects call for progress through another theory/ies that is/are better than the present theory. They can be solved through repeating the process of problem-solving through “trial-and-error” again and again with the help of learning from the past mistakes. It is how falsification happens.[43] Science starts with problems and progress starts with the defects of theories. Because problems and defects are forever present in science, science will never stop and never will it be final. It will continue to improve and improve and it will upgrade and upgrade the world. Science has no point to end because of falsification. It is open for changes which lead to progress. Falsification is a cycle of thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis. There will always be “anti-thesis” to any theories that presently existing and that will still exist in the future. The journey of science is unending.
Introduction: The Geist of Science
In this research paper, the science that is meant by the researcher is not the Science as the study of the physical world; rather science as a body of knowledge in a particular field or area. Science, as the body of knowledge, always starts with problems (any fields start from problems). These problems seek for answers to solve them. That is why, theories are made to supply solutions fitted to solve the problems. Their existence accompanies their being “proposals” in solving the problems. Those that are unsatisfactory in terms of the effectivity in proposing solutions to solve the problems are eliminated as soon as possible.
Problems are infinite. They are always there. Aside from problems, one must take in his/her mind the importance of one’s mistakes. Problems and mistakes are not just there to reveal what’s wrong. By correcting them, revelation of truth happens. Their presence calls for “the room for improvements.” It is called Error-Correction. What’s the purpose of problems and mistakes if one will not learn from them? Their existence shows that learning is important. For Error-Correction to happen, openness is needed. Error-Correction is not only applicable in science but also in life.
Problems and defects in theories have great contributions to all the improvements man can see around the world. All improvements are products of the solved problems. Falsification in theories will forever exist as a phenomenon. It is the process of replacing the old/earlier theories by the new/later theories. These new theories can solve the problems that had been solved by the old theories and can also solve the new problems that arise in the old theory. New theories are more advanced than the old ones. Because of falsification, Science, technology and other bodies of knowledge are on their way to advancement.[44]
Science follows the pattern of dialectics. That is why, the researcher made a unique dialectic theory called the Dialectics of Science. It follows the pattern of thesis-anti-thesis-synthesis. All theories are thesis because of their being “proposals” in solving a particular problem. Other theories against any theories are all called anti-thesis. Any theories are considered as anti-thesis if they go against other theories and contradict with other existing theories. Theories are considered as synthesis if they are the results of the thesis and the anti-thesis. Synthesized theories are the effects of merging the truth present from different theories combining them into one.
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Popper, Karl Raimund. Popper Selections. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985.
Popper, Karl Raimund. All Life is Problem Solving. New York: Routledge, 1999.
Parvin, Phil. Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers; v. 14. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc, 2010.
Audi, Robert. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd Edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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[2]All Life is Problem Solving, 4.
[3]All Life is Problem Solving, 7.
[4]Supra, 2.
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[11]Supra, 2.
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[13]All Life is Problem Solving, 10.
[14] Phil Parvin, Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers; v. 14, (New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc, 2010) 19. Hereafter, Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers; v.14.
[15]All Life is Problem Solving, 11.
[16]Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers; v.14, 39.
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[18]All Life is Problem Solving, 14.
[19]Supra, 2.
[20]Supra, 3.
[21]Supra, 3.
[22]Supra, 3.
[23]Supra, 2.
[24]All Life is Problem Solving, 14.
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[27]Supra, 2.
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[30]All Life is Problem Solving, 14
[31]All Life is Problem Solving, 15.
[32]Robert Audi,The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd Edition,(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 265. Hereafter, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd Edition.
[33]Supra, 1.
[34]Supra, 2.
[35]Supra, 2.
[36]Supra, 2.
[37]Supra, 2.
[38]Supra, 5.
[39]Supra, 6.
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[42]Supra, 11.
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Problem-Solving has been part of man’s history. It is not only applicable in Mathematics but also applicable in all bodies of knowledge. It is through it that progress happens. All progress man can see around him are products of problems that had been solved. In order to solve those problems, one needs to spend his/her time in running many tests (trial-and-error), be observant to every details, be patient and the most important thing to do is to learn from mistakes.
If there is a problem, there is/are answer/s being sought. The answer/s is/are what is missing and the one to be found out. In reaching the answer/s, the problem is solved. The answer/s to the problem is/are never perfect. Time will come that a problem will arise to the answer/s used to solve the old problem. Through it, continual progress happens.
Sciences are all about problem-solving. Life too is about problem-solving. Problems in one’s life are important because it is a means of progress. The progress here refers to what one can learn from the experiences he/she had with the problem, with the process of solving the problem and the answer which is the very aim to solve the problem and the very key for progress. Problems are important. One’s aim in problem-solving is of course to find solutions to solve the problem, to find the answer. In solving the problem, progress happens. If the problem is not solved, the data used in finding the solutions to solve the problem can still contribute to those who will and want to solve the problem.
A.) Trial and Error
Trial and Error has been a method used to solve any problems in Math, Science, all other bodies of knowledge and in life. According to Karl Popper,“the natural as well as the social sciences always start from problems, from the fact that something inspires amazement in us, as the Greek philosopher used to say. To solve these problems, the sciences use fundamentally the method that common sense employs, the method of trial and error. To be more precise, it is the method of trying out solutions to our problem and then discarding the false ones as erroneous. This method assumes that we work with a large number of experimental solutions. One solution after another is put to the test and eliminated.”[1] What’s good with trial and error is that one does not settle to one solution alone. He/she must be open to the solutions he/she thinks that can solve the problem. This method is really testing one’s patience but it creates a mentality to be open for mistakes and failures and learn to stand again through finding alternative solutions and learning from past mistakes.
1.) Three-Stage Model
Karl Popper, one of the philosophers of science, introduced a three-stage model of trial and error. His three stages are the problem; attempted solutions; and the elimination.[2] According to Karl Popper, “The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation. Attempted solutions then follow. These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures. In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[3] This three-stage model of trial and error can help one lead his/her self to solve the problem. This can also help one understand the process that happens before one can gets the answer to the given problem. In order one can achieve what is asked which is the answer, one must pass this method.
a.) Problem- The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation.[4] The problem arises when some kind of disturbance takes place---a disturbance either of innate expectations or of expectations that have been discovered or learnt through trial and error.[5] This then leads to testing movements, to attempts to replace the wrong expectation with new one.[6] Problem has been so essential in man’s life. Life is full of problems. Facing so many problems is natural in life. These problems are meant to be solved and not be taken for granted.
b.) Attempted Solutions- Attempted solutions attempt to solve the problem.[7] These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures.[8] The attempted solutions are not final solutions. Some of them may answer the problem while some cannot. Putting a theory as an attempted solution means it can stand up to rigorous tests. [9] These theories are subjects for elimination.
c.) Elimination- Elimination refers to the elimination of unsuccessful solutions.[10] According to Karl Popper, “In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[11] Those who are eliminated cannot solve the problem. Some of them can solve the problem but there are those solutions that are better. Those theories that remain have the capacity to solve the problem.
B.) Learning through “Error-Correction”
If life is full of problems to be solved, life too is full of learning. Learning basically happens through passively learn from someone (parents, teachers, tutors, friends) or something (books, other reading materials). In other words, it is passive learning. Aside from passive learning, learning can also happenthrough ones experiences. One’s experiences include the experiencesof mistakes, errors and failures. In line with the three-stage model of trial-and error, one must learn from his/her experiences of mistakes and failures for progress to happen. Error correction is the most important method in technology and in learning in general. In biological evolution, it appears to be the only means of progress. One rightly speaks of the trial-and-error method, but this understates the importance of mistakes orerrors-of the erroneous trial.[12] Mistakes are important in learning. It speaks of the defects made by the one who suggests the theories and solutions. If one is aware of it, he/she can avoid doing the same mistakes again for the next time. The lesser the mistakes made the next time one presents his/her theory, means he/she really has learned.
II.) Falsification as “Proof with Disproof”
Falsification is the process of replacing the old/earlier theories by the new/later theories. These new theories can solve the problems that had been solved by the old theories and can also solve the new problems that arise in the old theory. New theories are more advanced than the old ones. Because of falsification, Science, technology and other bodies of knowledge are on their way to advancement. According to Karl Popper, “what distinguishes the scientific approach and method from the prescientific approach is the method of attempted falsification. Every attempted solution, every theory, is tested as rigorously as it is possible for us to test it. But a rigorous examination is always an attempt to discover the weaknesses in what is being examined. The testing of theories is also an attempt to detect their weakness. The testing of theory is thus an attempt to refute or to falsify the theory.”[13]
Theories have their strengths but they also have weaknesses. That is why falsification will always be possible due to the presence of the weaknesses of theories. Because theories have weaknesses, they can still be replaced by other theories. Theories are made just to solve the present problem/s of the old theories but it is really good if the theories could stand for a longer time. The longer the time a theory stands, the more credible that theory is. Theories are also made due to the needs of the people. For example, one will create a software that nobody had ever made due to the need of people. Since it is the first timeof the existence of the particular software, the software may serve its purpose in the present. When the time comes that other peoples’ needs will be greater than the present, there will be anyone who will create the same software but is more advanced than the software in the present.
Scientific discovery is thus a process of building and falsifying theories through a process of trial and error. The result was a genuinely new approach to the philosophy of science which had implications for the pursuit of knowledge outside of the scientific community, and which had the potential to empowerphilosophers and social scientists (as well as scientists) to engagewith fundamental problems by employing the same approach.The point was not to determine what was scientific and what wasnot in order to renounce the latter; rather, it was to provide abroad theory of epistemology, within which it was possible todetermine what appropriately belonged to the realm of scienceand what did not.[14]
Falsification is “proof with disproof.” The proof here refers to the old theory that solved the old problems. If new problems will arise in the old theory, it is subject for falsification. The disproof here refers to the new theory that can solve the new problems that arouse in the old theory. Scientists prefer to test own theories and falsify them, rather than leave them to critics.[15] Science, then, does not begin in observation, but in the positingof theories about problems.[16] For science may be said always to start from the collapse of a theory. This collapse, this elimination, leads to the problem of replacing the eliminated theory with a better theory.[17]
A.) Refutability in Theory
Theories are principles that explainany phenomena. They contain truth in them but they are not absolute truth. Because they are not absolutely true, they have loopholes. Because theories have loopholes, they can collapse. If a theory is refutable, then it is really a theory. If a theory is not refutable, then it is not really a theory. Sciences improve because of the refutability of theories. Because of its being refutable, advancement and progress happens. What the sciences reach in the present are the products of the problems that had been solved in the past and the theories that had been replaced by the better ones. The present science is the product of the theories refuted in the past.
All theories have their weaknesses. They have problems that cannot be solved. The problems cannot be solved by the earlier ones can be solve by the new ones. All theories need other theories. The purpose of other theories is to solve the unsolved in any other theories. The being refutable of theories is the nature of theories.
B.) Refutability means Progress
Theories do not contain absolute truth. In other words, they have downfalls. They have problems that cannot be solved. The purpose of other theories is to solve them. If the problems that arise in a theory are solved, then there is progress.
Refutability of theories means progress. The being refutable of theories permits progress. If something is refutable, then it can be improved. Earlier theories are refutable and are replaced by the new theories. This new theories are also refutable. This refutability of theories makes sciences jump and jump, improve and improve. The older the earth becomes, the greater the improvements happen to man.
C.) Four-Stage Model of Trial and Error
Falsification is not possible using the three-stage model of trial and error alone. It can only happen through the four-stage model of trial and error of Karl Popper. The four-stage model of trial-and-error are the old problem, the formulation of tentative theories; attempts to elimination; and the new problem. [18] It is the cycle of the three-stage model. The falsification happens with the cycle of trial and error especially when the new problem is solved.
1.) Old Problem
The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation.[19] The problem arises when some kind of disturbance takes place---a disturbance either of innate expectations or of expectations that have been discovered or learnt through trial and error.[20] This then leads to testing movements, to attempts to replace the wrong expectation with new one.[21] Old problem/s makes science possible. Science started with a very first problem to be solved and it is the old problem. The old problem is the starting point of science.
2.) Formation of Tentative Theories
Formation of tentative theories attempt to solve the problem.[22] These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures.[23] They are theories that are not final. The tentative answers provided by the theories are in fact attempted explanations.[24] The more the theories are formed, the bigger the possibility that some of them can solve the problem. According to Popper, “every attempted solution, every theory, is tested as rigorously as it is possible for us to test it but a rigorous examination is always an attempt to discover the weaknesses in what is being examined. Our testing of theories is also an attempt to detect their weakness. The testing of theory is thus an attempt to refute or to falsify the theory.”[25] Tentative theories are “not final” theories that attempt to solve the problem and are subject for the elimination of unsuccessful solutions and theories.
3.) Attempts at Elimination
Elimination refers to the elimination of unsuccessful solutions.[26] According to Karl Popper, “In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[27] This is the stage of critical discussion and examination.[28] Again according to Popper, “They are intellectually interesting because they allow us, in practice and the real world, to check the validity of our theories or attempted explanations.”[29] Through the elimination of unsuccessful solutions, the “not so important” solutions are eliminated and replaced by the more important ones. The eliminated solutions are important because of the experience and learning it gives which can help solve the old problem.
4.) New Problems
New Problems are the problems that arise in the theory itself. It is the downfall or loophole of the theory. Prescientific and scientific problems are initially practical in nature, but in the four-stage cycle they are soon at least partially replaced by theoretical problems. This means that most new problems arise out of the criticisms of theories: they are internal to theory.[30] This new problem makes falsification possible. Because of the new problems that exist in the old theory, it is subject for falsification. New problems make science improve. Because of the new problems, it calls for progress through solving the new problem. In solving the new problem, progress happens and science becomes “unstable.”
III.) The Goal of Science
Science had given and continues to give big contributionsin man’s life and in the world. Everything man can see around are products of science. It has been part of man’s life going back to the nomad ages or even before it until now in the present. It is the
key for the betterment of this world. Going back to the past, the world was purely agricultural while now, it is a combination of agricultural, industrial, technological and virtual. The world is partly agricultural with all the advancements in the present world because most of man’s needs for survival such as food are taken from it. All of the improvements in this world became possible because of science. Science grew and continues to grow because of the trial-and-error method in solving the problems and also through the process of falsification. What then is the goal of Science? Can it be achieved or not?
The goal of science is to improve the world where man lives. The improvement happens because of the cycle of the trial-and-errorwhichis called falsification. It makes science always in a “running mode.” Because of this, science will improve and improve the world. There is no rest for science as long as there are problems unsolved and as long as man exists to solve the problem.For sure, there will always be problems and it will never end. The world will always be on its way for a better, improved and progressive world. The nature of science is to “upgrade the world.” All these are possible with falsification. The more the science improves, the more the world becomes better, and the more the information man can access from the world.
A.) No Point to Reach the End
The goal of science is to improve the world through the cycle of trial-and-error which is the falsification. It is the key for the betterment of the world. According to Karl Popper, “Science as it appears in the logical sketch is a phenomenon to be understood as perceptually growing; it is essentially dynamic, never something finished; there is no point at which it reaches its goal once and for all.”[31] This time, the argument is that science has no point to reach its goal. The goal this time refers not to “improvement” but to the “end.” Popper did not mean that science will not improve. What he meant was there is no point for science to “end.” In other words, science will never stop. It will not stop because of the unsolved problems and defects of theories and the nature of science as imperfect striving to be “near-to-perfect.” Science will improve and improve as long as man lives.
1.) Defects as Call for Progress
Problems are important in science. Without them, there is no science. Science starts with problems. Through the existence of problems, there is “something to be sought.”That“something to be sought” is “the answer” to solve the problem. Because it is something to be sought, one must use the process of “trial-and-error” and run extensive tests. If the answer is sought, the problem is solved but the question then is “how long will it stand?” Theories have defects and are refutable. The theories that can solve the old problem fall down because of some defects. These defects call for progress through another theory/ies that is/are better than the present theory. They can be solved through repeating the process of problem-solving through “trial-and-error” again and again with the help of learning from the past mistakes. It is how falsification happens.What is Science without problems and defects? Science starts with problems and progress starts with the defects of theories.
2.) Science as Imperfect to “Near-to-Perfect”
Science and other fields of knowledge always start with problems. If they are solved, new problems (from the solution to solve the old problem) arise to be solved. Problems are forever present in science. Problems are always part of science because science starts with problems and progress starts with the new problems or defects. Science and other fields of knowledge have problems because of their nature as “imperfect.” Science is imperfect as it would start with imperfection and improve because of imperfection. It strives for perfection but it can never be perfect. It is only “near-to-perfect.” There is no perfection in science because there will always be problems existing. It starts with problems. If they are solved, new problems arise. Without problems, science will stop and there will be no need for progress. That is why, science will forever be imperfect because it is its nature. There is no point for science wherein it will be perfect and no defects. Science in nature is dynamic. If time will come it reach perfection, it is no longer a science for it becomes static. Progress in science happens because of the imperfections.
IV.) The Dialectics of Science
The Dialectics in the past, going back in the times of the ancient philosophers, is an argumentative exchange involving contradiction, or a technique or method connected with such exchanges. The word’s origin is the Greek dialegein which means “to argue” or “converse.” In Aristotle, this often has the sense “argue for a conclusion”, “establish by argument.” By Plato’s time, if not earlier, it had acquired a technical sense: a form of argumentation through question and answer.[32]
If the dialectics in the past refers only to the exchanges of arguments and ideas, the dialectics in which the researcher referred to is the tension between opposing theories and ideas in science, in which, these opposing theories, the thesis and anti-thesis, when combined, results to the synthesis of theories. This dialectics is called the Dialectics of Science. Other styles of dialectics were applied by some philosophers in their philosophy such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Hegel. Marx’s dialectics was the Material Dialectics while Hegel’s dialectics was the Historical Dialectics.
The Dialectics of Science refer to the tension between conflicting theories in science. The science that is meant by the researcher is not the Science that studies the physical world rather; it is the science in general, an organized body of knowledge in a particular subject (e.g. Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology, Biology, Chemistry, Philosophy, Theology, etc.). It covers all bodies of knowledge. If Marx’s dialectics was the Dialectics of Work and Hegel’s dialectics was the Dialectics of the History, the Dialectics of Science is the newly discovered dialectics by the researcher. It was an existing phenomenon in all bodies of knowledge going back in the past up to the present.
A.) The Stages of the Dialectics of Science
In any dialectics, there is a concept called the geist. Geist refers to spirit, movement, trend or atmosphere. The spirit here is not the spirit that is understood as the spirit of a person rather, it refers to the movement or the flow of the subject of dialectics. Like any other dialectics, the Dialectics of Science has a progressing geist. The pattern is thesis, contradicted by the anti-thesis and when both combined results to synthesis. It is an unending cycle. With this spirit, science will improve and improve.
1.) Thesis- The Thesis, as the first stage of dialectics, refers to any theory proposed to solve a problem. All theories can be called thesis because they can propose something that can solve the problem existing. It starts the cycle of the dialectics. Thesis is only possible if before its existence, there are problems to be solved.
2.) Anti-Thesis- The Anti-Thesis, as the second stage of dialectics, refers to any theory proposed to solve the problems that other theories (earlier its existence) cannot solve. It is the nature of the Anti-Thesis to contradict to the Thesis. Through the presence of the anti-thesis, progress in science is made possible.
3.) Synthesis- The Synthesis, as the third stage of dialectics, refers to the combination of the thesis and the anti-thesis. Both the thesis and anti-thesis contains truth. The truth they have are merged to one. The truth contained by the synthesis is stronger than that of the thesis and the anti-thesis.
B.) The Unending Cycle of Dialectics
The game of science is unending. First of all, its being infinite (game) is due to the unending existence of problems and defects in theories. Aside from the fact that theories have strengths, they also have weaknesses. These weaknesses call for progress. That is why, science has no end. It will always seek for progress due to the unending presence of problems. Because of problems and weaknesses present to theories, replacements of the earlier theories by the later ones happen. This process of replacement of theories by the better ones is called falsification. Before falsification happens, progress can only happen if one learns from his/her mistakes (Error-Correction). By learning from mistakes, falsification happens.
Because the game of science is unending, the cycle of dialectics is also unending. There will always be thesis in science, where theories propose solutions to solve the existing problems. To oppose to the thesis, there will always be anti-thesis. Theories as anti-thesis are always possible because of the unending presence of defects in theories. Because all theories contain truth, the truth contained by theories can be merged which results to synthesis. Synthesis is the combination of the thesis and the anti-thesis. It contains a stronger truth. After the synthesis, it will be opposed again by the anti-thesis. This cycle makes the science to appear as unending. The Dialectics of Science shows the infinite game of science towards improvement through the process called falsification.
Science is unending. It has no point to end. All bodies of knowledge always have the room for improvement. As time continues to flow, the world will continue to improve and improve. Life is like a Mathematics subject. It is full of problems to be solved. One is free to use different solutions and go in different ways for improvement to happen.
Conclusion: Science as “Never Final”
Science is “problem-solving.” It is through it that progress happens. All progress man can see around them are products of problems that had been solved. It always starts with problems.[33] These problems are asking for answers. In searching for the answers to solve the problem, one must use the process of “trial-and-error.” “Trial-and-Error” has been a method used to solve any problems in Math, Science, all other bodies of knowledge and in life.[34]
Karl Popper, one of the philosophers of science, introduced a three-stage model of trial and error. His three stages are the problem; attempted solutions; and the elimination.[35] According to him, “The starting point is always a problem or a problem situation. Attempted solutions then follow. These always consist of theories, and these theories, being trials, are very often wrong: they are and always will be hypothesis or conjectures. In science, too, we learn by eliminating our mistakes, by eliminating our false theories.”[36]
Aside from “trial-and-error” method in solving the problems, science improves through “learning from mistakes.” One must learn from mistakes for progress and improvement to happen. Learning and correcting mistakes is the most important method in technology and in learning in general. In biological evolution, it appears to be the only means of progress.[37] Learning from mistakes and correcting them “upgrades” science. In correcting the mistakes, falsification happens. Falsification is the process of replacing the old/earlier theories by the new/later theories. This new theories can solve the problems that had been solved by the old theories and can also solve the new problems that arise in the old theory. New theories are more advanced than the old ones. Because of falsification, Science, technology and other bodies of knowledge are on their way for advancement.[38] Falsification begins with the collapse of theories through the defects found in them. This collapse, this elimination, leads to the problem of replacing the eliminated theory with a better theory.[39]
Because the game of science is unending, the cycle of dialectics is also unending. There will always be thesis in science, where theories propose solutions to solve the existing problems. To oppose to the thesis, there will always be anti-thesis. Theories as anti-thesis are always possible because of the unending presence of defects in theories. Because all theories contain truth, the truth contained by theories can be merged which results to synthesis. Synthesis is the combination of the thesis and the anti-thesis. It contains a stronger truth. After the synthesis, it will be opposed again by the anti-thesis. This cycle makes the science to appear as unending. The Dialectics of Science shows the infinite game of science towards improvement through the process called falsification.[40]
The goal of science is to improve the world where man lives. The improvement happens because of the cycle of the trial-and-error which is called falsification. It makes science always in a “running mode.” Because of this, science will improve and improve the world. There is no rest for science as long as there are problems unsolved and as long as man exists to solve the problem.[41] It has no point to reach the end. According to Karl Popper, “Science as it appears in the logical sketch is a phenomenon to be understood as perceptually growing; it is essentially dynamic, never something finished; there is no point at which it reaches its goal once and for all.”[42] Science is dynamic. It is always on its way to progress. Progress is possible because problems and defects that make the theories collapse. The collapse of theory is calling one’s attention to find solutions to solve it. Problems and defects are and will always be part of science. It is where science starts and it is where improvements and progress happens.
Science is “never final.” It has no point to stop and become stable. It will never end. The nature of science is that it is imperfect because it is full of problems and defects. Problems and defects will never stop. Theories have defects and are refutable. The theories that can solve the old problem fall down because of some defects. These defects call for progress through another theory/ies that is/are better than the present theory. They can be solved through repeating the process of problem-solving through “trial-and-error” again and again with the help of learning from the past mistakes. It is how falsification happens.[43] Science starts with problems and progress starts with the defects of theories. Because problems and defects are forever present in science, science will never stop and never will it be final. It will continue to improve and improve and it will upgrade and upgrade the world. Science has no point to end because of falsification. It is open for changes which lead to progress. Falsification is a cycle of thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis. There will always be “anti-thesis” to any theories that presently existing and that will still exist in the future. The journey of science is unending.
Introduction: The Geist of Science
In this research paper, the science that is meant by the researcher is not the Science as the study of the physical world; rather science as a body of knowledge in a particular field or area. Science, as the body of knowledge, always starts with problems (any fields start from problems). These problems seek for answers to solve them. That is why, theories are made to supply solutions fitted to solve the problems. Their existence accompanies their being “proposals” in solving the problems. Those that are unsatisfactory in terms of the effectivity in proposing solutions to solve the problems are eliminated as soon as possible.
Problems are infinite. They are always there. Aside from problems, one must take in his/her mind the importance of one’s mistakes. Problems and mistakes are not just there to reveal what’s wrong. By correcting them, revelation of truth happens. Their presence calls for “the room for improvements.” It is called Error-Correction. What’s the purpose of problems and mistakes if one will not learn from them? Their existence shows that learning is important. For Error-Correction to happen, openness is needed. Error-Correction is not only applicable in science but also in life.
Problems and defects in theories have great contributions to all the improvements man can see around the world. All improvements are products of the solved problems. Falsification in theories will forever exist as a phenomenon. It is the process of replacing the old/earlier theories by the new/later theories. These new theories can solve the problems that had been solved by the old theories and can also solve the new problems that arise in the old theory. New theories are more advanced than the old ones. Because of falsification, Science, technology and other bodies of knowledge are on their way to advancement.[44]
Science follows the pattern of dialectics. That is why, the researcher made a unique dialectic theory called the Dialectics of Science. It follows the pattern of thesis-anti-thesis-synthesis. All theories are thesis because of their being “proposals” in solving a particular problem. Other theories against any theories are all called anti-thesis. Any theories are considered as anti-thesis if they go against other theories and contradict with other existing theories. Theories are considered as synthesis if they are the results of the thesis and the anti-thesis. Synthesized theories are the effects of merging the truth present from different theories combining them into one.
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